What is the cyber kill chain? Framework, limitations, and alternative models

In a world full of cyber threats, it's not really a question of if a cyberattack will happen but when. That's why it's so important to understand how attackers think and move. One of the most commonly used ways to break down and anticipate these attacks is the cyber kill chain — a step-by-step method that shows how hackers get in, take control, and try to reach their goals.

The cyber kill chain model helps security teams spot and stop threats early by mapping out the attacker's journey. But like any method, it's not perfect. In this article, we'll walk through how the kill chain works, where it falls short, and how other alternatives — like the unified kill chain, MITRE ATT&CK, and cloud-based models — can fill the gaps.

What is the cyber kill chain?

The cyber kill chain is a cybersecurity kill chain model that outlines the stages of a cyberattack — from initial planning to the attacker achieving their final goal. It helps security teams understand how intrusions unfold and where they can step in to stop them. Originally developed by Lockheed Martin in 2011, the cyber kill chain definition adapts military concepts to digital threats, turning the chaos of a cyberattack into a clear sequence of steps.

The purpose of the model is simple — break the chain, stop the attack. By dissecting each of the cyber kill chain phases, organizations can identify weaknesses in their defenses, improve threat detection, and respond more effectively to incidents.

Such cyber kill chain methodology encourages defenders to think like attackers. It's not just about patching vulnerabilities — it's about anticipating moves, analyzing behavior patterns, and building a proactive defense. Whether it's preventing malware delivery, detecting suspicious command-and-control activity, or containing lateral movement, the kill chain offers a structured way to reduce cyber exposure.

While the kill chain was groundbreaking at the time of its release, today, threats are more complex and dynamic. Attackers no longer follow a single path, and defenders need more flexible strategies. Still, the cyber kill chain remains a foundational tool in enterprise cybersecurity, especially when paired with modern models like MITRE ATT&CK and threat intelligence platforms like NordStellar. For teams looking for clear cyber kill chain examples or a breakdown of its seven steps, it's still one of the best ways to understand and counter the modern cyberattack kill chain.

The 7-step cyber kill chain framework

At the heart of the cyber kill chain is a seven-step process that mirrors the typical lifecycle of a cyberattack. Each phase represents a specific tactic used by threat actors, and each offers a potential point of detection or disruption for defenders.

Understanding these steps not only helps in identifying and mitigating threats but also informs smarter investment in tools like vulnerability scanning, threat detection, and threat exposure management platforms.

1. Reconnaissance

Every attack starts with cyber kill chain reconnaissance. In this phase, the attacker gathers information about their target — systems, software, employees, email addresses, exposed credentials, and network configurations. The goal is to find exploitable weaknesses with minimal exposure. The process may involve scouring dark web forums for leaked sensitive data, identifying a company's attack surface and perimeter security gaps, or scanning public IPs for unpatched services.

2. Weaponization

Once a vulnerability is identified, the attacker creates their weapon. This weapon could be a phishing email with a malicious link, a rigged PDF, or a file embedded with infostealer malware. The payload is often customized based on the information gathered in the first phase. Weaponization marks the point where a harmless-looking delivery vehicle is fused with exploit code, ready to be deployed.

3. Delivery

Now, it's about getting the weapon to the target. Email is the most common delivery method — especially in phishing attacks — but attackers also use infected websites, USB drives, compromised third-party software, or direct exploitation of open services. Because this step happens outside the victim's systems, it's one of the hardest to catch unless robust filtering and sandboxing tools are in place.

4. Exploitation

This is the stage where the attacker takes advantage of a vulnerability to execute malicious code on the target system. It could be a user unknowingly opening a malicious attachment, a browser plugin with a known flaw, or an unpatched service being remotely accessed. Once exploited, the attacker can begin interacting with the system, typically with the goal of escalating privileges or disabling security features to prepare for further steps.

5. Installation

Next, the attacker installs persistent malware or backdoors to ensure continued access. This process could involve the use of rootkits, trojans, or hidden payloads that blend into regular system activity. Without continuous threat detection, this step can go unnoticed for weeks or months, giving attackers the time to explore, extract, and exploit further.

6. Command and control (C2)

Now embedded in the system, the malware connects to a remote command server to receive instructions. This step is known as the command and control phase (C2). Through this channel, attackers can remotely move through systems, execute commands, extract data, or deploy additional tools. Many modern C2 frameworks are designed to blend into regular network traffic, making them harder to spot without behavioral analytics.

7. Actions on objectives

This final step is where the attacker fulfills their mission. It could be data breach and exfiltration, encryption for ransom, destruction of systems, or even long-term espionage. By this point, the attacker has successfully bypassed multiple layers of security and is operating inside the target network. Containing insider threats here is urgent and expensive.

8. Monetization

While not part of the original Lockheed Martin kill chain, many security teams add an eighth phase — monetization. This additional stage reflects the reality that most internal or external attacks today are financially motivated — whether it's ransomware payouts, stolen data sales, or extortion schemes. Tracking how attackers attempt to convert stolen assets into revenue is important to modern cybersecurity kill chain thinking.

Cyber kill chain example

To see how the cyber kill chain model works in practice, let's look at a well-documented example — the 2020 SolarWinds supply chain attack.

In this breach, attackers compromised the software supply chain of SolarWinds, a popular IT management platform, and inserted malicious code into a routine software update, ultimately impacting thousands of organizations, including U.S. government agencies.

Here's how this attack maps to the cyber kill chain steps:

1. Reconnaissance. The attackers spent months studying SolarWinds' build process and identifying ways to insert malware without being detected. This phase likely included research on the company's infrastructure, code repositories, and internal teams.
2. Weaponization. The attackers created a backdoor called "SUNBURST," which was designed to blend in with legitimate SolarWinds software code and avoid detection. It was digitally signed and prepared for distribution.
3. Delivery. The trojanized software was delivered through a legitimate SolarWinds Orion platform update and pushed out to around 18,000 customers.
4. Exploitation. Once the malicious update was installed, the SUNBURST malware began executing, allowing attackers to silently communicate with compromised systems.
5. Installation. The malware established persistent access and began downloading further payloads to deepen the compromise.
6. Command and control (C2). The attackers maintained communication with infected systems through a stealthy command-and-control infrastructure, avoiding known malicious IPs and using obfuscated traffic.
7. Actions on objectives. In targeted environments (such as U.S. federal agencies), the attackers escalated privileges, moved laterally, and accessed sensitive data and emails.
8. Monetization/impact. While the attackers' motives were largely espionage-related rather than financial, the impact of the breach was severe, including reputational damage, regulatory scrutiny, and long-term trust issues.

Evolution of the cyber kill chain

Since its introduction by Lockheed Martin in 2011, the cyber kill chain has been a foundational model in cybersecurity. Originally built to stop cyberattacks, the cyberattack kill chain described a linear, seven-step process that attackers follow, from reconnaissance to actions on objectives.

But cyber threats have changed. Modern attacks are faster, more automated, and often nonlinear. Attackers may skip various stages, double back, or hit from multiple angles at once.

To keep up, cybersecurity professionals have reimagined the intrusion kill chain in several key ways:

• Broader coverage. New frameworks include extra stages like monetization to reflect modern motives.
• More flexibility. Real-world security breaches don't follow a script, so the model has become less rigid.
• Integrated response. The cyber kill chain in breach responses connects detection to remediation more directly.
• Technology-driven. AI, machine learning, and automation are now part of the defense strategy.

These updates have shaped what's now known as the unified cyber kill chain — a more complete approach to understanding the cyberattack lifecycle.

Applying the cyber kill chain in modern cybersecurity

The cyber kill chain framework offers a structured way to detect, prevent, and respond to attacks by breaking down the cyberattack lifecycle into distinct phases. Understanding each stage — from reconnaissance to actions on objectives — helps security teams disrupt cyberattacks before they escalate.

Early in the cyber kill chain process, during reconnaissance, defenders can use threat intelligence and attack surface monitoring to detect suspicious scanning or data harvesting. This approach gives teams time to harden exposed systems and reduce vulnerabilities.

In the cyber kill chain weaponization and delivery phases, tools like email filtering, sandboxing, and user training help block phishing attempts and malicious payloads. Once an attacker tries to exploit a weakness, patch management and behavioral analytics play a key role in identifying and stopping unusual activity.

As attackers attempt installation or establish command and control, endpoint detection, response tools, and traffic monitoring can shut down unauthorized access. Platforms like NordStellar enhance visibility here, helping teams act quickly and contain threats.

Finally, in the actions on objectives stage — when attackers try to move laterally, steal data, or deploy ransomware — segmentation, access controls, and real-time detection tools are critical. Strong incident response plans and backups further limit the impact if an attacker gets that far.

Applying defenses at each cyber kill chain phase builds a layered, proactive approach. Early perimeter security measures, like firewalls and intrusion prevention systems, help stop attacks during reconnaissance and delivery stages before attackers gain access.

Traditional cyber kill chain model limitations

The traditional cyber kill chain model faces criticism primarily for its linear, step-by-step approach. Real-world cyberattacks often don't follow a neat sequence — attackers may skip various stages, repeat steps, or operate on multiple fronts simultaneously. Doing so makes the model less effective in capturing complex and adaptive threats.

Additionally, the cyber kill chain was created to address outside attacks on target network limits. But now, with cloud systems, insider threats, and supply chain risks, attacks happen in more places, which is why this framework fails to cover all types of threats.

The cyber kill chain also tends to emphasize early detection and prevention but pays less attention to post-compromise activities like lateral movement and data exfiltration, leaving gaps in breach response. Lastly, its rigid structure can promote a reactive security mindset rather than encouraging continuous monitoring and proactive defense needed against sophisticated attacks.

Cyber kill chain alternatives

As cyber threats have grown more complex, new frameworks have emerged to complement or improve upon the traditional cyber kill chain. These alternative models offer more flexibility, deeper insights, or better alignment with modern environments like cloud computing. Here are some of the key alternatives:

Unified kill chain

The unified kill chain expands on the original by integrating multiple attacker methodologies into a single framework. It addresses the limitations of the linear kill chain by including broader attack tactics and focusing on continuous attacker behavior across multiple stages. This model is more adaptable to complex, multi-vector attacks.

MITRE ATT&CK framework

MITRE ATT&CK is a comprehensive knowledge base of adversary tactics and techniques based on real-world observations. Unlike the kill chain's sequential stages, ATT&CK maps attacker behaviors across different phases and provides detailed guidance for detection and mitigation. It's widely used for threat hunting and developing proactive defenses.

Kill chain in cloud-native contexts

With the rise of cloud computing, traditional models struggle to account for the distributed nature of cloud environments. Cloud-native kill chain models adjust the framework to focus on specific cloud vulnerabilities, container exploitation, and API attacks, offering tailored guidance for protecting modern infrastructures.

OODA loop

Originally a military decision-making process, the OODA loop (observe, orient, decide, act) emphasizes speed and adaptability. In cybersecurity, it encourages rapid detection and response cycles to outpace attackers, promoting a mindset of continuous observation and quick reaction rather than fixed stages.

To give you a clear overview, the table below summarizes the key cyber kill chain alternatives discussed above, highlighting their approaches, strengths, and limitations:

Summary

From its origins as a way to break down cyberattacks into manageable steps, the cyber kill chain remains an important framework in cybersecurity. It helps security teams understand attacker behavior and identify key moments to intervene and stop security breaches. By clearly mapping the external attack stages, it supports more effective detection, prevention, and response.

That said, the cyber kill chain has limitations, especially in handling multi-layered threats. Combining it with alternative models like MITRE ATT&CK or the unified kill chain — and applying flexible, adaptive defense strategies — is key to a stronger security posture.

For organizations looking to enhance their threat detection and response capabilities, using advanced solutions such as NordStellar's threat exposure management platform can make a significant difference. NordStellar helps unify visibility across attack surfaces and provides actionable threat intelligence to stay ahead of attackers.